Terry Lynch, naturalist and photographer at Mt. Cheaha, Alabama, observation tower with his guard dog, Jade, a solid black German Shepherd. Photo by research assistant and colleague, Ute Fahrholz, who was a participant at the Joint European Commission/National Science Foundation Workshop, Chateau de Bonas, Toulouse, France, 1-4 June 1999.

When naturalist and photographer, Terry Lynch, decided to spend a few days camping at the top of Mt. Cheaha he never imagined that it would lead to some great and enlightening discovers related to fireflies. As twilight set over Mt. Cheaha Lynch noticed fireflies flashing under the trees and decided to record their flash patterns and collect specimens for later analysis. Lynch learned that the fireflies occurring atop Mt. Cheaha were a dwarf tribe of the common firefly Photinus pyralis. But the most amazing and spectacular discoveries were to come some time later after Lynch had Scanning Electron Microscope images made of the Mt. Cheaha dwarf firefly specimens he collected.

Although Lynch was quite familiar with Alabama fireflies, having observed and studied them since he was at student at Jacksonville State University, it was the first time he had closely observed fireflies upon Mt. Cheaha. This variety of firefly seemed to have adapted to living atop the highest point in Alabama, given it was somewhat smaller than the typical Photinus pyralis firefly which is among the largest of fireflies in North America. Thus Lynch began to ponder what factors may have led to a firefly becoming significantly smaller than those at a lower elevation? This led Lynch to discover that fireflies are not merely the romantic twilight flashers which grace the summer fields, meadows, and forest, but are engaged in what Lynch has come to call Firefly Warfare!

Head of Photinus showing two large compound eyes, base of antennae, mandibles, mouthparts, and lower segments of legs. Notice also that a firefly's head is covered by a protective shield or pronotum. Photinus is a rather gentle firefly compared to Photuris and lacks the promontory sawtooth structure between its mandibles. Copyright © 2011 by Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc. Specimen collected, preserved, provided, identified, described, and digitally enhanced by Terry Lynch.

Every species of firefly is equipped to compete for domination of territory and when observed under high magnification of a scanning electron microscope (SEM), it is revealed that the manner in which fireflies are adapted to compete for territory is quite amazing and spectacular. Adult fireflies have sickle-like mandibles which can inflict poisonous bites, injecting highly caustic digestive enzymes which turn flesh into fluid and paralyses other fireflies.

In fact, it has long been known that female Photuris fireflies mimic the flash of male P. pyralis fireflies, luring them to their death. Lynch was able to make a video of Photuris feasting upon Photinus fireflies which he posted on YouTube, the first such video ever made.

Then Lynch closely examined the morphology of the dwarf Mt. Cheaha fireflies under high magnification making some significant observations related to their cuticular structures. Fireflies are equipped with sharp tarsal claws that are like grappling hooks.

Tarsal claw of Photinus sp. (Dwarf tribe of P. pyralis from Mt. Cheaha, AL) digitally enhanced to add a golden sunset hue. Copyright © 2011 by Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc. Specimen collected, preserved, provided, identified, described, and digitally enhanced by Terry Lynch.

In addition to the large tarsal claws occurring upon a firefly's feet, a firefly is also equipped with tarsal pads that can stick to extremely smooth surfaces, even to glass. A firefly can walk upside down on glass much like a regular house fly.

The SEM images of Mt. Cheaha fireflies revealed that their tarsal pads are covered with thousands of minute hairs which flatten out on the ends like a spatula. In the fireflies Lynch found upon Mt. Cheaha these tenent setae secret a sticky, milky white nonvolatile lipid that enables fireflies to easily cling to leaves, branches or other smooth surfaces.

This image shows the tarsal claw and pad or pulvillus upon the leg of Photinus sp. (Dwarf tribe of P. pyralis, Mt. Cheaha, AL). Note the forest of hairs or tenent setae on the pulvillus which enable the firefly to easily cling to the smooth surfaces of leaves, grass, and other vegetation -- even glass. Copyright © 2011 by Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc. Specimen collected, preserved, provided, identified, described, and digitally enhanced by Terry Lynch.

The ability to readily cling to surfaces is vital for fireflies that are active during the twilight or evening hours. It especially aids Photuris fireflies in preying upon Photinus fireflies, as once a large Photuris firefly lures and grabs hold of a Photinus firefly, the grappling hook tarsal claws and sticky tarsal pads make escape difficult. Thus Photuris can pounce upon its prey, holding them fast and secure, inject digestive enzymes, and eat its prey alive. The adhesive action of numerous spacular tenent setae is indeed a formative weapon, especially when coupled with grappling hook-like tarsal claws, and sawtooth cuticular structures between sickle-like mandibles that inject a powerful digestive enzymes into their prey.

Photinus sp. Tenent Setae. The above photo has been digitally enhanced giving a golden hue to the forest of tarsal pad hairs or tenent setae. Note the tenent seta in the lower right which shows clearly that channels which carry lipid adhesives end in the spatulate pad; small globular debris may be solidified or coagulated lipid adhesives. Copyright © 2011 by Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc. Specimen collected, preserved, provided, and digitally enhanced by Terry Lynch.

Lynch realized when he discovered that the apex labrum of Photuris is trilobel and has sharp pointed, saw-like teeth between its formidable grooved mandibles, that these structures help rip apart the bodies of its prey. Biting Photinus behind its pronotum, latching on with its powerful mandibles, and moving its head left to right such that the sawtooth trilobel labrum between its mandibles cut like a jigsaw, Photuris can quickly and effectively cut through nerves and paralyze Photinus. Photuris fireflies have such a voracious appetite for Photinus that it is like a vampire's lust for their milky white blood which contains lucibufagins, powerful pyrons which deter such firefly predators as birds, toads and some hunting spiders. Hence there is warfare between Photuris and Photinus fireflies; Photuris needs that milky white blood to enhance its ability to survive. To many small animals the milky white blood of Photinus is very unpalatable and serves to protect the Photinus fireflies from predation; hence, Photuris benefits from preying upon Photinus by acquiring the lucibufagin pyrons in their blood. Small animals like birds, toads and hunting spiders may then learn not to eat Photuris just as they learn not to eat Photinus.

This image of Photuris has been digitally enhanced to bring out the debris upon its grooved mandibles and surrounding mouthparts. Photuris females prey and feed upon Photinus fireflies and in the process acquire the milky white viscous and unpalatable blood of Photinus. To some small animals this blood is distasteful, even poisonous, and may provide Photuris with an advantage in its competition to survive that it lacks prior to ingesting the blood of Photinus. In this sense the voracious Photuris is the vampire among fireflies, that stalks its prey and lust for the pure, white blood of its relative gentle, angelic, virgin victims. The white, sticky blood of Photinus may be a contributing factor to why highly magnified SEM images of both Photinus and Photuris which has fed upon Photinus have so much debris clinging to their body hairs and mouthparts. Copyright © 2011 by Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc. Specimen collected, preserved, provided, identified, described, and digitally enhanced by Terry Lynch.

Plus a firefly's head is especially adapted for night warfare. The most prominent features of a firefly's head is its enormous spherical eyes which enable it to see in a wide field at low light levels as it flies about and searches for a mate. Moreover a firefly's head is covered and protected by a shield or pronotum. This shield acts to help protect the head of a firefly and prevent it being preyed upon, given it is behind the head where Photuris fireflies attempt to bite Photinus fireflies when they are lured and attacked.

Compound Eye of the Firefly, Photinus sp. Shown here is a SEM of the large spherical compound eye of Photinus sp. (Dwarf tribe of P. pyralis, Mt. Cheaha, AL). This image has been digitally enhanced to express the numerous hexagonal cuticular cornea or facets. Fireflies have two large compound eyes which have a dark black, shiny hue and coloration when observed by the naked eye. Copyright © 2011 by Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc. Specimen collected, preserved, provided, identified, described, and digitally enhanced by Terry Lynch.

Lynch's theory of firefly warfare is based upon the principle that each species of firefly establishes a social network which extends to those individual firefly larvae which live in the ground, in leaf litter, or in wetland areas upon vegetation close to the ground. Firefly larvae serve to dominate a territory eating soft bodies animals such as snails and earthworms. In fact, Lynch has been able to maintain Photinus pyralis firefly larvae by feeding them earthworms. Lynch discovered that even very tiny firefly larvae can latch upon an earthworm and kill it. When a tiny firefly larvae bites a much larger earthworm the earthworm goes into a spiral death role trying to remove the firefly larvae which rides the earthworm like Ahab upon the great white whale in Melville's Moby Dick. But the firefly larvae remains attached to the earthworm because it has an anal appendage that is covered with thousands of hooked hairs. Hence even a tiny firefly larvae's bites can paralyze a much larger earthworm. Once the earthworm is immobilized, the firefly larvas's strong digestive juices turn it to liquid and it is devoured alive.

It would seem that the tribe of fireflies atop Mt. Cheaha has grown smaller than those at lower elevations as the small size has a number of advantages. Small fireflies do not require as much food as larger species; plus a smaller firefly can more effectively dominate a small area like the top of a mountain that is largely littered with granite rocks and has a soil that is relatively shallow in its depth. Plus a small firefly is more agile than its larger cousins and so can more easily escape predation by Photuris. Plus small fireflies conserve energy more easily than do larger fireflies. These factors all have contributed to the evolution and survival of the dwarf species which occurs atop Mt. Cheaha becoming the dominate firefly species in that particular ecological niche.

Combined these factors revealed to Lynch that the fireflies one may see on a summer's eve are species that are constantly engaged in warfare to dominate territory. Fireflies are using their light not only to locate a mate, but to enable establishing a social network. Lynch perceived a relationship to this mechanism of social networking and how it contributed to the survival of the species in fireflies, then drawing up a report on how this same principle may be applicable to the domination of territory in strategic planning, deployment and operations of military land forces.

Realizing that his discovery may have applications in modern warfare, Lynch submitted his theory to strategist associated with the US Army at West Point suggesting how this might be used to end the War on Terrorism. It just so happens that the principles Lynch discovered are operating in firefly warfare may have analogous implications in human warfare. This is true given human warfare involves employment and application of force to secure territory just as does firefly warfare; communication using a social network matrix operates in fireflies to result in domination of territory; hence, it follows this same principle that has evolved over the millennium would apply to human warfare. In fact, Lynch has proposed that the War on Terrorism could be both won and ended if the principle of social networking and matrix domination he discovered operating in fireflies were utilized in its analogous form in modern warfare given both firefly warfare and human warfare can achieve victory by employing what essentially is a social network or matrix to secure territory.

Lynch has gone further to speculate that application of this very principle may have played a key role in operations to locate Osama bin Laden who was killed by Navy Seals after the social network he established and used was discovered through the work of intelligence agents. Although Lynch is not saying that the principles he discovered operating in fireflies may be have been employed in that intelligence operation, it is interesting that his report was sent to military strategist long bent on finding Osama bin Laden, and that then in short order Osama bin Laden was located hiding in Pakistan. This is a fact that could have been discovered using the very principle of social networking domination that came to light through Lynch's firefly research.

To understand the significance of Lynch's theory of Social Networking in Matrix Domination one needs to realize that every aspect of firefly behavior and morphology plays a vital role in equipping the firefly for warfare. This involves both larvae fireflies as well as adult fireflies. In fact, it is the larvae fireflies that secure territory and benefit from the food source of soft bodied animals that territory provides. The adult fireflies then expand that range in a constant and brutal warfare. When one perceives a meadow flashing with fireflies, what they are actually seeing is fireflies communicating to not only find their mates, but to gain strength in numbers so that they will be the dominate species in an area. Once a very high population density of a singular species occurs then fireflies can flash is great synchronous displays, as if to single VICTORY!

Social networking in fireflies. Adult and larvae fireflies form a social network which enables them to establish domination of territory. Male fireflies M1-M15 create triangular social networks and establish communication with female firefly on the ground, F1-F4. Males mate with the females which deposit large numbers of eggs E1-E4. Larvae L1-L4 hatch in great numbers and over time establish domination over territory which is used for a food source as they prey upon soft bodies animals like earthworms and snails. Graphic © 2011 by Terry Lynch.

Lynch also realized that the Mt. Cheaha fireflies demonstrate that each species of firefly is acting as a social unit or tribe that utilizes communication by light as a means to establish dominance over territory, such that fireflies exist not so much as individuals each struggling to survive, but as a large group, the group acting as a unit or army, much as do human armies. This realization coupled with the fact that each firefly has evolved to be essentially a living weapons system, the application of light to communicate and aid in establishing social networks, has tremendous implications if applied to human warfare.

Fireflies demonstrate how a small organic life form operates using social networking to establish a tribe or army to conduct warfare; apply this principle to the construction of miniature, weaponized robotics systems able to act collectively to destroy enemy forces and you have a perfect model for a whole new generation of weapons systems. Although this may seem the stuff of science fiction, researchers are already developing small robotics systems and weaponized drones for both surveillance and attack. The current Predator drones or remotely operated unmanned aerial vehiclest being deployed and used in Iraq and Afghanistan represent the beginning of such robotics warfare systems.

Lynch envisions that in the not too distant future miniaturization of such systems modeled upon the firefly would make it possible to produce an army of weaponized robots which could search out and destroy an enemy in the most complex terrains without risking any harm to friendly forces. Thus the principle of firefly warfare discovered by Lynch in his studies of the Mt. Cheaha firefly may have significant applications in the War on Terrorism. In the future instead of sending in Navy Seals to kill and destroy the next Osama bin Laden, we may be able to send in a special operations unit of miniaturized flying robots that acting together will be able to seek out and destroy an enemy wherever he tries to hide. Also, such mechanized robotics systems could be designed and used to deploy chemical or biological agents that could destroy fields of opium poppies, marijuana, or cocaine crops. This would have the ultimate effect of taking away the economic base used by terrorists and organized criminals around the world and ultimately function to win the War on Terrorism.

Although Lynch's theory of Social Networking to Establish Matrix Domination in Fireflies may seem far out and wild when applied to human warfare, it makes more rational sense when one realizes that fireflies have been around for millions of years. Over time they have evolved to communicate, to use light to enable each species to distinguish itself from other species. This enables social networks of large numbers of fireflies to occur over time. In the case of the dwarf species of firefly atop Mt. Cheaha, it may be regarded as a beacon of good health and hope for the future of Alabama, indeed for America. As long as the Mt. Cheaha fireflies are alive and well, flying and flashing atop the state's highest point, just as Vulcan shines bright over Birmingham, then the state of Alabama and our nation is healthy and will prosper. Should the state of the environment or our disregard for such natural wonders as Mt. Cheaha's dwarf firefly ever cause this natural treasure to vanish, then it will be an ominous sign!

With this in mind Lynch has also identified a number of key factors contributing to the disappearance of fireflies in some areas. These include such urbanization factors as over spraying for mosquitoes, light pollution, destroying habitat, paving over land with concrete and asphalt, and generally turning forests into concrete jungles. Lynch suggest that to preserve the firefly population atop Mt. Cheaha, street lights should not be operated during the months of June through August and that absolutely no spraying for mosquitoes should be done from dusk until dawn when fireflies are most active. Also park visitors should be made aware of the natural treasure represented by the dwarf species of fireflies atop Mt. Cheaha that it not be molested and efforts made to preserve their habitat which has become developed as a campground for the benefit of tourists.